Denisovan admixture within America?

Last may I published a brief post about a paper by Castro e Silva et al., (2026). The evolutionary history and unique genetic diversity of Indigenous Americans. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-026-10406-w. The paper is an in-depth study of South American natives' genetics, the three waves that peopled the subcontinent, and the "remarkable allele sharing with Australasian populations, probably originating from an ancient admixture event and partly maintained by selection for more than 10,000 years." It attributes this permanence across ten millennia because this admixture was positively selected for due to benefits these alleles provided to those carrying them.

Archaic Introgression

I re-read the article and took note of the part that says that the Australasian signal is not the result of an archaic introgression, which means that Denisovans didn't share these same genes with Oceanian and American natives, there were different groups admixing with each population. The paper states: "Furthermore, we identified candidate regions of adaptive archaic introgression from Neanderthals and Denisovans that contribute to functions related to immunity, metabolism and epidermal integrity, thereby reinforcing the role of archaic alleles in shaping the evolutionary trajectory of non-African populations. Importantly, our data indicate minimal overlap between genomic regions with Australasian affinity and those introgressed from archaic hominins, supporting the interpretation that these signals represent distinct evolutionary phenomena."

Australasian signal

The Australasian signal in Amerindians is very very peculiar, it has a high prevalence in some groups that live in the Southwestern Amazon region and Chaco (these groups are the Awajún, Ayoreo, Guarani, Karitiana, Sirionó, Suruí, and Tsimané). This is known as the introgression from a "Y" population, or Ypykuéra (a Tupi word meaning "ancestor") which is a "ghost lineage" of ancient Amerindians with a high Australasian genetic content.

The paper confirms that the distribution of Australasian "alleles" is not uniform, it shows a "partially discontinuous spatiotemporal pattern" which suggests, according to the authors that "this ancestry was present during the initial peopling of America." It is also very ancient because the paper finds that Amerindians "diverged from other continental groups between about 70,000 and 15,000 years ago."

The paper states that isolation of these Amazonian groups that carry the highest frequencies of these introgressed alleles and their inbreeding and small population sizes are all factors that led them to have such a high prevalence of them. However, I wonder if another factor was at play: Denisovans lived in that region and encountered humans there, admixing in that area with them. After all it is a kind of cul-de-sac in the Amazonian rainforest nowadays, why wouldn't it have been one for the Denisovans? They also seem to have thrived in the jungles of Indonesia, and the Philippines in Southeast Asia.

The comparison between different groups within America, outside of America, and archaics, didn't detect any "correlation... between Australasian and Neanderthal... or Denisovan affinity... By contrast, Neanderthal and Denisovan affinities were strongly correlated... consistent with homogeneous archaic ancestry in the founding populations."

This is interesting because the Australasian signal is independent from the two archaic introgressions. This suggests that the Denisovans and Neanderthals that admixed with the first Amerindians were different from those who admixed with Australasians (including the Onge people and the Hòabìnhian people from Laos).

The authors wondered if the Australasian-Amerindian similarity was due to "shared archaic ancestry" but when the checked the introgression from Denisovans and Neanderthals in both groups, they found a "minimal overlap of 0.4%, corresponding to 11 genes/genomic regions... This minimal overlap indicates that the Ypykuéra ancestry is unlikely to have been derived from a known archaic hominin." (This is not clear, what do they mean by "a known archaic hominin"?)

The paper did find a "shared ancestry component between Indigenous Americans and Australasians that extends deep into the past." So this shared ancestry probably came from a similar modern human group, yet, as mentioned further up, the ancestors of the Amerindians split from other H. sapiens 15 to 70,000 years ago. I favor the older date. But, intriguingly, these people did not admix with the same Denisovans or Neanderthals that the Australasians bred with!

This could be explained by a split in this basal Homo sapiens: one group went into Australasia and admixed there with a group of Denisovans, the other headed north into East Asia mixing with other Denisovans, and eventually reached America. However, why is there no presence of other East Asian signals in Amerindians? This leads to a second alternative: the admixture event between Denisovans and the modern human ancestors of Amerindians took place inside America?

The map below outlines this possibility, with the Denisovans splitting from the Neanderthals somewhere in the South Caucasus, and moving into East Asia along different routes, a northern one to Altai, and then Tibet and East Asia, another along South Asia, and South East Asia into the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Another hypothetical route could have led them across Siberia into America. Their last stand was in the Tropical Amazon region. They seemed to thrive in all types of climate, from icy siberia and Altai, to the highlands of Tibet, and the jungles of Sundaland and Sahul. America offers all of them: Cold Alaska, Canada and Northern USA, Patagonia, high mountains and plateaus in Bolivia and Peru, as well as along the Andes in Chile and Argentina, and of course the Jungles east of the Andes from Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia to Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina.

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Patagonian Monsters - Cryptozoology, Myths & legends in Patagonia Copyright 2009-2026 by Austin Whittall © 

Patagonian mtDNA is quite unique!

A paper published in 2017 (Diferenciación regional de poblaciones nativas de América a partir del análisis de los linajes maternos, Intersecciones en Antropología 18: 271-282. 2017. ISSN 1666-2105. Josefina María Brenda Motti, Marisol Elisabeth Schwab, Julieta Beltramo, Laura Smeldy Jurado-Medina, Marina Muzzio, Virgina Ramallo, Graciela Bailliet, Claudio Marcelo Bravi), looks into the maternal genetic component of the Native American people of South America, analyzing their mtDNA.

Their data show that Patagonian natives have a unique set of haplotypes not found in the rest of South America. Table 1 in the paper is shown below, with the haplotypes found in Chilean and Argentine Patagonia (it has no data from the Province of Neuquén).

Haplogroup frequencies (%). Table 1 in Motti et al. (2017)

The authors point out the high frequency of certain variants in Argentina's Patagonia, namely, B2i2, D1g, D4h3a5 y C1b13. It suggests that the "notable unity" in Patagonia, both in Chile and Argentina with the preponderance of these haplotypes suggests that south of Latitude 40°S, as the Andes are lower in elevation, there could have been west-to-east mobility of migrating groups.

The authors also note that "these lineages are practically exclusive to Patagonia, as they are found at low frequencies in central Argentina, Uruguay, and northern Chile, and are absent from the rest of the continent. The homogeneity on both sides of the Andes Mountains is indicative of common ancestry."

They suggest that D4h3a5 reached the region along the Pacific, while the presence of B2i1 in the Amazon people like the Kayapó, a sister clade to Patagonia's B2i2 suggests the arrival of people along the Atlantic coast of South America.

mtDNA D1g is Ancient

Since D1g is around 18,000 year old, its age could hint that it was among the first to reach the area, followed by younger haplogroups B2i2 y C1b13, aged 10,800 BP and 12,000 BP, respectively. B2i2 is absent in the Island of Tierra del Fuego suggesting that it differentiated later.

Michelle de Saint Pierre (2017) suggested that D1g as well as D4h3a are ancient, and must have been present in the first wave of people to reach America, later overlaid by more recent arrivals. (de Saint Pierre, Antiquity of mtDNA lineage D1g from the southern cone of South America supports pre-Clovis migration. Quaternary International, Vol 444, Part B, 2017, p.19-25, ISSN 1040-6182, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.05.054.). de Saint Pierre wrote:

"The age calculated for D1g, between 25,000 and 19,000 cal yr BP is extremely old for a South American mitochondrial subhaplogroup. The anomalous age of this haplogroup does not fit the currently accepted framework for the other mtDNA haplogroups in the Americas...
Of the exclusively Amerindian haplogroups, D4h3a has an age of 17.6 kyr. This is a good candidate to date the early peopling, since considerable evidence has shown it to be an ancestral haplogroup. D4h3a has been recovered from the late Pleistocene (12,707e12,556 cal yr BP) Anzick child (Rasmussen et al., 2014) and from a skeleton of an early Holocene individual from Alaska (Kemp et al., 2007), which is empirical evidence of the presence of this lineage in Paleoamericans. Also, D4h3a has a wide geographic distribution, being found low frequencies in populations across the continent, including the most southern native populations, the Patagonians"

See my post on D1g here, and the post on D4h3a here.

The Amazonian origin of the Mapuches

Back in 2012 (de Saint Pierre M, Gandini F, Perego UA, Bodner M, Gómez-Carballa A, Corach D, et al. (2012) Arrival of Paleo-Indians to the Southern Cone of South America: New Clues from Mitogenomes. PLoS ONE 7(12): e51311. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051311) had found that the sub-haplogroups B2i2 and C1b13 were exclusive to the southern tip of South America and noticed that B2i2 was found at high frequencies among the Mapuche people and related groups like the Pehuenche and Huilliche (26 to 39% frequencies) while admixture led to lower levels among the Tehuelches (14%). It was absent in northern Chile and also among the canoe people of Tierra del Fuego and Southern Chile (who rarely admixed with the Mapuches). Saint Pierre not only found th B2i group among the Amazonian Kayapó, they "identified only two additional mtDNAs, one from Brazil and one from northern Uruguay (both bearing the B2 control-region haplotype plus the B2i diagnostic transitions at np 430 and 485), thus preliminarily suggesting a geographic distribution of B2i1 limited to the northern and eastern part of South America/i>." This is interesting, and it is in line with the notion that the Mapuche originated in the Amazonian region and moved on, later into Chile.

I have posted about a common origin for Mapuche and the Amazonian Guaraní people (and again here), and that the Mapuche were late arrivals in the Patagoian region, so I welcome additional evidence that supports this theory.

Variant C1b13, on the other hand, is found beyond Patagonia, among people like the Atacameño of NW Chile's Atacama desert region, and the Alakaluf and Yamana canoe people, and surely spread to these people from the Mapuche homeland in Central Chile, and is of recent origin there, from an older C1 root.

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Patagonian Monsters - Cryptozoology, Myths & legends in Patagonia Copyright 2009-2025 by Austin Whittall © 

On the Australasian imprint in Paleoindians (Part 2)

See part 1 here

This post continues my analysis on how did the Australasian genetic imprint (from Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands) reach the ancient Amerindians and current tribes in the Amazon and NW Peruvian coast without leaving any traces in the North American Natives, ancient North Amerindian remains, or their Beringian ancestors.

I thought it would be pretty straightforward, but it isn't. The genetics of the Late Pleistocene in Asia are not simple. There were several groups there around 50,000 years ago, and the current populations don't reflect the situation at that time.

Assuming Out of Africa as correct, it seems that humans moved across Asia and diversified into different "Basal" populations.

Tianyuan Man

Genetic analysis of a male found in Northern China, close to Beijing, in the Tianyuan cave, confirmed he had 4-5% of Neanderthal introgression. He was dated at 41,000 years ago. "three South American populations—the Surui and Karitiana in Brazil (“Amazonians”) and the Chane in northern Argentina and southern Bolivia—share more alleles with the Tianyuan individual than other Native American populations do." (source), these Amazonians are the ones with the Australasian imprint. The paper adds that "we find that the Amazonians can be described as a mixture of other Native American populations and 9%–15% of an ancestral population related to the Tianyuan individual, the Papuan, or the Onge (SE 4%–10%)." So here we add another "ancient" Asian component to the Australasian imprint, the Tianyuan man's genes.

The paper reasons that "The fact that the Tianyuan individual, who lived in mainland Asia about 40,000 years ago, has affinities to some South American populations that is as strong as or stronger than that observed for the Papuan and Onge suggests that a population related to the Tianyuan individual, as well as to the present-day Papuan and Onge, was once widespread in eastern Asia. This group or another Asian population related to this group persisted at least until the colonization of the Americas and contributed to the genomes of some Native American populations."

A 2025 paper found that "Among individuals from continental Eurasia, we find the highest proportion of detectable Denisovan ancestry in Tianyuan (∼0.25%), while other pre-LGM individuals from Eastern Eurasia had lower levels of Denisovan ancestry, comparable to those of later East Asians and Siberians."

Onge and Hòabìnhian

The Onge from the Andaman Islands are Australasians, and their signal is found in the Amazonian tribes. They were part of a basal population in Southeast Asia, a 2022 paper includes the following map showing a possible entry route into the area, and the current levels of this ancient basal component. Note how high it is in some areas.

Basal Asians. Fig. 2 in Deng et al. (2022)

The paper continues: " We speculate this basal Asian (bASN) ancestry to be an ancient lineage... the bASN ancestry is negatively correlated with the Altai Neanderthal introgression in Asian populations... suggesting that the peopling of Asia might have occurred prior to the Altai Neanderthal introgression (directly or indirectly) to the modern human populations in this region." Which makes sense, the Neanderthals lived in the colder central and NW regions of Asia, and possibly in NE Asia. So the people that moved along the coast of Southern and SE Asia didn't encounter Neanderthals on their journey.

An extremely interesting paper by Silcocks & Dunstan (2023) on dispersal of humans and two strains of tuberculosis across Asia finds a similar distribution of ancient people in Asia, the basal one in SE Asia, a later wave in northern and central Asia. (map below from the paper).

!--image captions-->

Original caption: "Fig. 7: Our proposed model of human-Mtb co-expansion, including population dispersal trajectories, and the predominant Mtb and Y-chromosome lineages they carried.". Source

A paper published in Science by McColl et al., (2018) indicates that there are "at least four ancient populations [in Asia] The oldest layer consists of mainland Hòabìnhians (group 1), who share ancestry with present-day Andamanese Önge, Malaysian Jehai, and the ancient Japanese Ikawazu Jōmon." The paper includes the following map, which shows an even older migration (black arrows) heading norteast to Tianyuan and southeast into Sahul, Papua New Guinea and Australia. The Onge and Hòabìnhians split later (red arrows).

Original Caption: Fig. 4 Model for plausible migration routes into SEA. This schematic is based on ancestry patterns observed in the ancient genomes. Because we do not have ancient samples to accurately resolve how the ancestors of Jōmon and Japanese populations entered the Japanese archipelago, these migrations are represented by dashed arrows. A mainland component in Indonesia is depicted by the dashed red-green line. Gr, group; Kra, Kradai. Fig. 4 McColl et al.

A similar route is suggested by Larena et al. (2021) which analyzes the genetics of the Philippine population. It mentions a first wave of human beings that reachied Sundaland (at that time it was not submerged) and peopled Australia, Papua New Guinea, the Indonesian Islands, the Philippines, and Andaman Islands around 50,000 years ago. This basal group put the Negrito people in the Philippines. Below is Fig. 2A from the paper, where I have added these place names and the comment on the exposed continental shelf

This wave comprised "Paleolithic hunter-gatherer groups, linked genetically to the Basal Australasian branch of modern humans"" it led to the Negritos, PNG people and Australian Aboriginal people, and also, in Southern China to another basal group, shown in the image above, the "Basal East Asian".

These Basal East Asians could have moved along the Pacific coast, northwards into Japan, and the Siberian coast, reaching America with their Onge genetic imprint. Moving along the coast of North America they didn't leave an imprint in its interior. Then, when they reached South America they moved inland. Plausible, but strange.

I have not yet found a paper with a convincing explanation of the "Gap" in Beringia, ancient North American and Mesoamerican paleoindians and most of the later Amerindians in the continent.

False Signal?

A study published in 2018 by Posth et al. failed to find the Population Y signal:

"We tested for this signal in the ancient South American individuals with statistics of the form f4(Mbuti, Australasian; X, Mixe or ancient South American), and while we replicated the originally reported signal when X was present-day Karitiana or Surui, we could not detect a signal when X was any of the ancient South Americans (Table S6). We also studied the statistic f4(Mbuti, Tianyuan; Ancient1, Ancient2) to test if any ancient individual is differentially related to Tianyuan (Yang et al., 2017), but no statistic was significant (Table S6). We finally applied qpWave to all pairs of South American groups, testing whether they were homogeneously related to a set of diverse non-Native American outgroups (Mbuti, Han, Onge, French, and Papuan) and found no pair of ancient South Americans that consistently gave significant signals (p < 0.01), as expected if all the ancient South Americans we analyzed derived from the same stem Native American population (Table S6). Our failure to find significant evidence of Australasian or Paleolithic East Asian affinities in any of the ancient Central and South American individuals raises the question of what ancient populations could have contributed the Population Y signal in Surui and other Amazonian groups and increases the previously small chance that this signal—despite the strong statistical evidence for it—was a false-positive. A priority is to search for the Population Y signal in additional ancient genomes."

Another paper searched for the Population Y signal using f4 statistics: f4(Mbuti, Papuan/Onge/Australian; present-day Mexicans, ancient Brazilians). The authors noted that:

"The only ancient Brazilian group showing significant affinity to Onge, compared with present-day Mexicans, is the JabuticabeiraII_~2400BP group. The signal is mainly driven by one individual (JBT009—burial 38), but it remains for the entire group even after the exclusion of JBT009. Similarly, there is significant genetic attraction between Onge and one individual from the Cabeçuda_3200BP group (CBE004—burial 15), while all other tests do not reach values close to significance (Supplementary Data 7). However, no evidence of the Population Y signal is found in the recent Amazonian individual Palmeiras Xingu_500BP, despite the fact that this ancestry was first described in present-day Amazonian populations; or in Capelinha_10400BP, despite its association with the paleoamerican cranial morphology. We further tested the presence of differential affinity of ancient Brazilian individuals to present-day Papuans, Onge and Australians, as well as the 40,000-year-old Tianyuan genome-wide data from China using f4 statistics of the form f4(Mbuti, Papuan/Onge/Australian/Tianyuan; Ancient Brazilian A, Ancient Brazilian B). Only the JabuticabeiraII_~2400BP group reaches significant attraction to both Onge and Papuans, and only in comparison to LapaDoSanto_9600BP (ref. 63). This suggests either that the Population Y signal is equally widespread in most tested ancient individuals from Brazil or that previously reported attractions to non-American ancestries are exacerbated by the use of present-day Mexican populations in comparison to ancient groups (Supplementary Data 7)."

Modern Mexicans are a mixture of European and North American native people. It is reasonable that they are different from secluded Amazonian natives. The Mixe natives are North American, which lack this Population-Y signal. It does not appear to me that they "exacerbate" the population Y signal.

Posth et al. didn't detect it among the ancient samples they used, this does not mean it is a false positive, perhaps their sample did not include the members of this first peopling wave which was erased by later "ancient" people via Beringia, with Siberian genetic imprints.

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Patagonian Monsters - Cryptozoology, Myths & legends in Patagonia Copyright 2009-2025 by Austin Whittall © 

Korupira, the red haired Amazonian man

O Curupira - Lenda Amazônica. The Curupira, Amazonian legend),[2] by Manoel Santiago (1926) from [3].

The romantic style painting shown above, by Manoel Santiago, depicts a half-naked native sleeping on a hammock by the sea while a lewd satyre covered with reddish hair looks at her and caresses her leg. The satyre is no other than the Brazilian Corupira or Korupira (also Curupira or Kurupira as it has many other names as we will see below).

This “hominid” has been reported across a vast area of South America and may be, together with the other ape-men mentioned in my previous posts (found in Peru, Venezuela and Guyana) belong to the same species although they are known by different names.

Korupira area of distribution. The places mentioned in this blog. The red circles show other places with ape-men (see my previous posts). Copyright ©2012. A. Whittall

The map above shows the distribution range of Korupira has been reported: the Amazonian basin and surrounding areas is this hominid’s territory. The red circles show places where other hominids (or all are the same being?) have been sighted.

First written account 1560
The first written reference about it dates back to the end of May,1560. In a letter written by father José de Anchieta to the General Fatehr at Sao Vicente.
Anchieta ( 1534 – 1597) was a Spanish Jesuit missionary who was living at that time in the oldest permanent town of Brazil, Sao Vicente, in the Bay of Santos, very close to modern Sao Paulo.
I will quote his letter (you can check the original Portuguese text online at the link shown below at [1]). After dealing with real animals found in the area (sloths, tapir, etc.), he goes on to tell his superior about the other creatures:

I will now add some few words abouth the nocturnal spirits or rather demons with which the Indians frighten themselves with. It is well known, and all say that there are certain demons which the Brazilians call corupira that often attack the Indians in the jungle, beating them and bruising them, and killing them. Proof of this is given by our Brothers who have sometimes seen those killed by them. [...].[1]

He added that the natives used to leave on the summits of high mountains, feathers, arrows and similar presents, praying fervently to the Curupiras, so they do nota harm them.[1]

About the Korupira
The name Corupira or Korupira, Kurupira comes from the Tupi language and means curu,a contraction of curumi, boy and pira, body, that is “with the body of a boy”.
There is an excellent book by Joao Barbosa Rodrigues (1890), which you can read in full (Portuguese) by following the link shown below at [4] which deals entirely with this mythical being. He transcribes many native stories about it. He also describes it and its natural distribution over a vast area of South America. Below I will cite Barbosa Rodrigues: [4]

• In Matto Grosso it is also known as Korupira. But some mistake him for the “wolf-man” or werewolf (Lobis-homem in Portuguese). He is a small sized black man that mounts a wild boar.
• In Paraguay he is known as Kaapora and looks like an old native who is master of the forest.
• In Amazonas and Pará states he is known as Kurumi, has only one leg and “Red hair, which civilization has turned into a red bertet (Pará).
• He has a wife Yatacy (Amazonas) or Tatámanha (Pará) is an old dark native dressed in rags. They have children.
• It is known as Máguare in Venezuela, Salvaje (savage) in Colombia and Chudiachaque in the Inca Peru. In Bolivia it is the Kauá of the Cocamas.
• In Perú, in the mountains it is a nearly black satyre whose hair reacheas his waist, and who kidnaps women for his orgies.
• The Makuchys of the jungles in Roraima (Brazil), call it Pokái and the Parikys of Yatapú River know it as Iurokó.
• it carried about a wooden axe

Red hair: a Neanderthal?
The description of Korupira as being red headed is interesting if we believe that homind with red hair was shown on Piri Reis 1513 map of South America.

It was widely distributed
As we can see Joao Barbosa Rodriguez believed that the myth was indeed Pan-American and shared by the native peoples of Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Perú, Bolivia and Parguay . These people believed that Korupira protected and reigned over the jungles and its creatures.
In its northern reaches, in Colombia, it was also known with a different name: Boraro.

The Boraro skin
In Colombia, Corupira is also known as Boraro , Pírrarro and Hojarasquín and is described as a brown skinned giant with thick fingers [5].
There is a very odd story involving this creature which I will transcribe below [6], it deals with the The Bará, or Fish People (Tukanoans), of the Northwest Amazon, along the area shared by Brazil and Colombia.
These people which call themselves “Waípinõmakã”, live along the upper Tiquié and upper Igarapé Inambú rivers (see the map).
The Boraro’s skin myth is the following: a man found the skin of a boraro while its owner was fishing shrimps, “the skin was like clothing; the boraro always removed it to swim”, the man put the skin on, and it took control over him. It made him do some dreadfull things: kill and ate he boraro, go to his home and take over his place there –even sleep with his wife. Years later he returned to his tribe and told his story. He went back with a relative to the boraro territory and the relative donned the boraro wife’s skinn while she was fishing. They ate the woman and returned home. Their kinsmen refused to believe them so all went back to the boraro land. The two original men put on the boraro furs and killed and ate the other men.
So it seems that the “furry” “hairy” ape-man, the Boraro = Korupira is just a man wearing a fur, otherwise there is no explanation for a furry man to remove his fur. Could this imply that they were primitive beings wearing skins as clothing, just as our distant ancestors did?
Is this legend a myth about primitive Neanderthal men and their barbaric (i.e. murderous and cannibalistic) ways?

Sources


[1] Anchieta, José de, S. J. (1933). Cartas, informações, fragmentos historicos e sermões / Padre Joseph de Anchieta. Rio de Janeiro : Civilização Brasileira, 1933. Pp.128 Carta X.
[2] Painting: Manoel Santiago (1897-1987): O Curupira - Lenda Amazônica (The Curupira, Amazonian legend), 1926. Oil on cloth 96 x 157 cm. Taken from [3]
[3] Neto, João Augusto da Silva, Figueiredo, Aldrin Moura de. Uma imagem, duas narrativas: as representações de uma lenda amazônica em Manoel Santiago. 19&20, Rio de Janeiro, v. VII, n. 1, jan./mar. 2012.
[4] Barbosa Rodrigues, João, (1890). Poranduba amazonense, ou kochiyma-uara porandub, 1872-1887. Rio de Janeiro: Typ. de G. Leuzinger & Filhos. pp. 6, 12, 13
[5] Guillermo Abadía, (1994). 2.300 adiciones al vocabulario folklórico colombiano. Volumen 142, Biblioteca Banco Popular.Fondo de Promoción de la Cultura del Banco Popular
[6] Jean Ellizabeth Jackson, (1983). The Fish People: Linguistic Exogamy and Tukanoan Identity in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology. Nbr. 39. Cambridge University Press, 1983. Pp 108 – 111.

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Patagonian Monsters - Cryptozoology, Myths & legends in Patagonia Copyright 2009-2012 by Austin Whittall ©